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Tuesday, November 23, 2021

British Drama and Poetry:17th Century Historical Overview

(According to BA English Honors Syllabus for Students of Odisha State)

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In English literature, 17th century was a time of great social and political disturbances. 17th century was a time of great social and political disturbances. 17th Century is marked by Civil war, Regicide, Restoration and the Glorious Revolution. This century witnesses all these upheavals.

 

The first half of this century which roughly spans from the year 1603 to 1660 is known as the age of Milton. John Milton was the greatest literary force of this period. The same period, that is from the year 1603 to 1660, can also be called the Puritan age because Puritanism was a dominant force during this period.

 

Who were the puritans and what is puritanism?

 

The Puritans were a group of English-speaking protestants…. They were dissatisfied with the religious reformation movement carried out during the reign of Elizabeth. The puritans wanted a complete purification of Church of England and they also wanted removal of practices such as hierarchical leadership, clerical vestments and various rituals of church which were associated with Rome. The puritans stood for the belief of Pure Christianity and hence the name Puritans was adopted.

 

A question may come to your mind why the years 1603 and 1660 are selected to mark the beginning and ending of the first half of 17th century. The year 1603 and the year 1660 are used to mark the beginning and the ending of the first half of 17th century because the years 1603 and 1660 are important for us from historical perspective.

 

In the year 1603, Queen Elizabeth died and James VI of Scotland became James 1 of England and ascended to the throne of England. He ruled up to 1625. After his demise Charles 1 became the king but during the kingship of Charles 1 a civil war broke out and the king was beheaded. The civil war spanned from 1642 to 1651. This English Civil War was a series of conflicts between Charles 1 and the parliamentarians. The supporters of King Charles were called the cavaliers and the parliamentarians were called the Roundheads. The Roundheads mainly comprised of puritan middle classes.

 

The war ended with the victory of the Parliamentarians. Charles 1 was executed while his Son Charles 2 fled to France. All hopes of monarchy were demolished and the monarchical rule was replaced with a strong puritan Government or Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. For 12 years till the death of Cromwell in 1659, the puritans ruled the country. Afterwards the Puritan Government did not last long and in 1660, Charles 2 was restored to the throne. Hence the term Restoration is used. Restoration of Charles 2 to the throne put an end to the puritan period.

 

The first half of 17th century (1603-1660) which marks the death of Elizabeth and continues up to Restoration can be sub-divided as follows for the sake of convenience.

 

1.   The Jacobean Period (from 1603 to1625)

2.   The Caroline Period (from 1625 to1649)

3.   The Commonwealth Period (from 1649 to1660)

 

 

Now let us learn something more about The Jacobean Period

 

The period from 1603 to 1625 in English literature is known as the Jacobean Period. It is because in 1603 James 1 ascended to the throne and he ruled up to 1625.  Viewers, you must learn that the term Jacobean is derived from the Latin word Jacobus which refers to James 1.

From the literary view-point this period is an extension of the Elizabethan age but the optimism and promise of Elizabethan era are missing in Jacobean Literature. We see a sombre, darker and doubting tone in the literature of this period. To explain this tendency of literature it can be assumed that the conflict between the parliament and the king gave a darker and doubting tone to the literature of this time.

 

The Jacobean period is followed by the Caroline Period

 

The Caroline age is named after Charles 1. He reigned England for 24 years from 1625 to 1649. The name Caroline is derived from the word CAROLUS. It is the Latin version of Charles. During Caroline period 3 schools of poetry came into existence. They were

 

Metaphysical Poetry

Cavalier Poetry

Puritan Poetry

 

Caroline period is deeply affected by political unrest and civil war. The civil war was fought between the Cavaliers and the Roundheads. The supporters of the king were known as cavaliers and the supporters of Parliament were known as Roundheads. Most of the Roundheads were the puritans.

 

Caroline age is characterised by civil war, rise of Puritanism, lack of spirit of unity, dominance of intellectual spirit and decline of drama. Caroline age was not an age of drama. The enactment of Drama was discontinued due to civil war and puritanical attacks. Sermons, pamphlets, history and philosophy were written in prose. Metaphysical poetry was the main literary output during the period.

 

Now let us learn more about The Commonwealth Period (1649-1660)

 

In this period there was a rise of puritanism. This is the period when there was no Monarch in England. After the death of Charles-1, Oliver Cromwell, the Puritan leader, came to power. He died in 1658 and his son Richard Campbell became the ruler of England. But he lacked authority. He ruled England till 1660. In this period, Puritanism became gradually unpopular. The English people realised that the monarchy was essential for them.

 

The first half of 17th century produced a few immortal books like King James version of Bible, Paradise Lost. However, the literature of the age is extremely diverse in character, and this diversity is due to the collapse of the ideals of political and religious unity. The literature differs from that of the preceding age in three marked ways. The preceding age was the Elizabethan age and it was the golden age of English literature. The literature of 17th century differed from Elizabethan age in three fronts. First, the literature of this period has no unity of spirit. For example, in the days of Elizabeth the patriotic enthusiasm of all classes used to unite all but such sentiments were missing in this era. Second, in contrast to the hopefulness and vigour of Elizabethan writings, much of the literature of this period became sombre in character. The literature of 17th century saddens rather than inspires. Last but not the least, 17th century literature had lost the romantic impulse of youth and it became more critical and intellectual. It makes us think but does not prompt to feel deeply.

 

For the sake of convenience, the historians earmark the period from 1660 to 1700 as the age of Dryden or as the age of Restoration.  

John Dryden was the representative writer or the trend setter of this period. Hence, it is legitimate to call this period as the age of Dryden. This period began with the restoration of King Charles-II to the English throne. Therefore, this period is also called the restoration period.

 

There are 3 historical events which deeply influenced the life and literature of the 2nd half of 17th century. It must be borne in mind that this age is otherwise known as the age of Restoration or the age of Dryden. Those three historical events are

1.   Restoration of Charles-II to the throne in 1660

2.   The Religious and Political controversies

3.   The Glorious Revolution of 1688

 

Restoration of Charles-II to the throne in 1660

 

Restoration of Charles-II to the throne brought about a revolution. All those activities that had once remained supressed previously during the puritan government surfaced again. Now the English people consciously engaged themselves in violent excesses. Theatres reopened, bear and bull baiting revived. Sports, music, dancing and all wild delights were practiced again.

 

The King and many of the loyalists who returned from exile were heavily influenced by French cultural attitudes. They brought back with them French lifestyle and French standards. The previous Elizabethan age was dominated by Italian standards but the restoration age was dominated by French influence and it continued through the next century.

 

The King had no redeeming patriotism. He had neither the sense of responsibility to his country nor care for his countrymen. However, he had a number of mistresses and numerous children. Most of the time, he used to remain surrounded by corrupt and degenerate ministers. As a result, profligacy was glorified in the royal court and Corruption was rampant in all walks of life. The Great Fire of 1665 and the Plague that followed were popularly regarded as suitable punishments for the sins of the profligate and selfish King.

 

While London was burning and the people were suffering, the King and his nobles were busy with their revels. The utter degeneration of the nation was realised when a handful of Dutch Navy swept the English fleet from the sea.

 

During the Restoration period there was a rapid development of science. The establishment of the Royal Society was a landmark in history of England. The interest in science began to grow. The growing interest in science resulted in the beginning of rational inquiry and scientific and objective outlook. Objectivity, rationality and intellectual quality also enlivened the literature of this period.

 

The Religious and Political controversies

 

This age also witnessed the rise of two political parties the Whigs and the Tories. These parties played a significant role in English politics. The Whigs sought to limit the royal powers in the interest of the people and the Parliament whereas the Tories supported the Divine Right theory of the King, and tried to restrain the powers of the people in the interest of the hereditary rulers. The rise of these political parties gave a fresh importance to men of literary abilities. Almost all the writers of this period had political affiliations. For example, Dryden was a Tory and he used to advocate the cause of his Monarch.

 

The religious controversies were bitter in this age. The supporters of the previous regime were fanatically persecuted. The nation was predominantly Protestant and the Catholics were unduly harassed and marginalised. They were suspected, had to pay higher taxes and were not permitted to hold any office under the crown. The intense hatred for Catholics influences the writings of this period.

 

The religion of the King himself was doubtful. Although Charles II outwardly expressed support for Anglicanism, he had Catholic sympathies. Charles had no legitimate heir, but only a Catholic brother James. It was certain that after Charles II, his brother James, who was a Catholic, would succeed to the throne. Efforts were made to exclude James from the throne. Anti-Catholic Parliament led by Earl of Shaftesbury tried to prevent the coming of James to the throne. Charles however defended the Royal line against Parliament’s attempt to determine the succession. The return of tensions and conflict between the King and Parliament led to the emergence of political factions or parties in parliament (Whigs and Tories). This whole attempt to exclude James from the throne was called as THE EXCLUSION CRISIS. Charles ended this crisis by dissolving the Parliament. The King sided with his brother and he removed all obstacles for the accession of James. Finally, James II was crowned as the king in 1685. Dryden ‘s famous poem Absalom and Achitophel reflects these religious and political conflicts of the day. 

 

The Glorious Revolution of 1688

 

In this age we see the Glorious Revolution which laid foundations of Modern England. The Glorious Revolution, also called “The Revolution of 1688” and “The Bloodless Revolution,” took place from 1688 to 1689 in England. It involved the overthrow of the Catholic king James II, who was replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, William of Orange. Motives for the revolution were complex and included both political and religious concerns. The event ultimately changed how England was governed, giving Parliament more power over the monarchy and planting seeds for the beginnings of a political democracy.

 

Students, according to your syllabus the following sub-points needs to be discussed. They are

 

·      Metaphysical poetry

·      Cavalier poetry

·      Comedy of humors

·      Masques

·      Beast fables

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Friday, November 12, 2021

DAUGHTER

From The Pen-APN

Amidst the blinking stars, she was like a full moon of calm beauty. With her comforting silence and elegantly reserved smiles, she filled joys of innocence everywhere. She was nonreactive to the vile world but her nonreaction was majestic and beautiful as that of the undying magical beauty of a sculptural masterpiece that could withstand all the tests of time.

Carrying beauty, refinement, modesty, simplicity in their purest forms, she could turn everyone’s life into a festive celebration regardless of all prevailing sorrows and subjugations of life.  She possessed an enchanting transformative power that compelled even the most unfeeling and numbest heart to marvel at the Almighty's creation with spontaneous, unpremeditated and whole-hearted responses of gratefulness. In her mesmerizing presence, being convinced, the beholders would silently and inwardly thank God for manifesting His Divine Glory in the form of such a splendid human creature.

To everyone, she is an inspirer of sacred feelings and ennobling emotions.  But to me, she is my lovely "DAUGHTER".

Tuesday, November 2, 2021

STREETLIGHTS

                                                                                                        From the pen-APN

When I stepped out of my house that November evening and opened the main iron gates, I was welcomed by tall streetlights which were scattering pleasant milky brightness as far as they could. The slender asphalt road, although worn out, looked majestic with the night sky overhead. The gleaming streetlights of the roadsides and the slightly misty and cool atmosphere were like the beauty of a dreamland.  The street was dominated by silence and loneliness and was a sight of pure magical charm and subtle beauty. The lighted view of the street stretching itself into the distant dark and mingling somewhere ahead indistinctly raised a good deal of philosophical thoughts and fixed my eyes in the distant horizon like a stoic. I could sense only some distant shadows. However, I could not but appreciate the immediate air and light which exhaled hope, joy, warmth and all-embracing love.      

I slowly walked ahead, chasing the lights. My hands were resting calmly in my trouser pockets, and so was my mind serenely resting in the soothing light. Further, in the silence of that wintry night, the easy wind was stripping off all my impurities and the lights were anointing my soul.

After a few moments’ walk, I stood beneath one streetlight that was close to the main entrance of my building. I wished “Goodnight” to all those confidently beaming and gleaming pillars of light and then went inside to have a peaceful night’s sleep.

    

Monday, November 1, 2021

Was It Simply A Dream?

From the pen-APN

(Dedicated to People's College Buguda)

When I woke up I knew that it was simply a dream.  But that dream made me sob uncontrollably and feel intensely some deep bonding that existed between me and the academic institution where I used to teach. I had almost drifted out of my sleep but I could not calm myself because my heart was still throbbing with some rush of emotions. In that dream, I had experienced one of the saddening farewell meetings and had witnessed the sorrowful pangs of a man who was departing from an institution where he had worked for a few years. I saw the man ruminating about his precious golden memories. To him, those departing moments were the moments of great discovery when he could realise the depth of his relationship with the said academic institution. At that point of that sad departure only, the man could realise how caring, loving and invaluable was the institution to him.

It is needless to say that the man in the dream was none but me.

The dream was over. I was then awake but I got amazed at my own feelings. In the silence of the morning, I realised how the soul of an institution spoke to me, softened my heart, moistened my eyes, stirred up many hidden feelings and demanded unfaltering dedication from me. Although it was just a dream, I could not ignore those life-like reactions, spontaneous responses and the warm feelings which I had experienced so vividly in my sleep. The memory of such a dream had stirred up some deep emotional state which had hitherto remained undiscovered in me.

I thanked those dreamy moments because they helped me understand my feelings better and resulted in some attitudinal changes at the personal and spiritual levels as well. Nobody knew what had happened to me but I was a changed man. I was lost in my newfound fond feelings for the institution and I was motivated for better work culture and pursuits of excellence.

When I got up and looked myself at the mirror, the figure in the mirror smiled back at me and told, “Afterall, tomorrow is another day and your days are not yet over”

 

Wednesday, May 26, 2021

A Teacher's Response to COVID19 Second Wave

 

From the Pen-APN

All the hard times, the sad times and the confused times may begin with Covid. With some imperceptible viral load, your body’s temperature may rise and, in tandem, your degree of isolation too. Those who are optimistic and hopeful of another fine morning are seen mentally reiterating, “If not today, then tomorrow the temperature will subside and the world will be all dance and fun as before.” But while doing so and hoping against hope, the most optimistic one unluckily may have given a super chance to the malicious virus to play its fatal game. The light of the day will diminish and by the evening, that hopeful and healthy person will find to his /her dismay that the oxygen level is steeply decreasing, in perfect tune with an approaching dark night.

Those who are fortunate find timely care and adequate medical assistance and those who are less fortunate miss the same and mishaps appear in the news. Unless the friends, relatives and family members take early steps to make medical assistance available to the diseased, it will often become too late.  

Now some pertinent questions are posed in a broader perspective, “How far can we provide adequatemedical support to the vast population of this country? Can our Medical Infrastructure and trained workforce sustain such massive outbreaks? Are the Governments doing the needful? Do the general public and service providers behave sensibly and refrain from overcharging the distressed?”

All the questions will have the inevitable “NOs”.

It is the point where we miserably stand. As an educationist, I cannot wait further, hoping against hope that some Government will come to my rescue and improve my fate with a magical wand. Those pink dreams are already stolen long back. Now I say to myself, “History bears testimony that the teaching fraternity can build a nation of order and harmony by educating young minds.” It is a universal truth, “everything may be lost but the future still remains.” And the teachers are the privileged ones who tune the future in their classrooms. As an antidote to such troubled affairs, the teaching fraternity can work miracle just by shifting their focus a bit. Now let us not simply build the future of our youth, now let us build our youth for the future. This is the need of the time. The vision has to become broader which can affect the future of our nation in a decade if we start it today in the classrooms. Hope for the best for another educational revolution…. Jay Hind, Jay Bharat!